Naturaliser la morale ou la moralité?
Florian Cova a, tout récemment, publié sur le site nonfiction.fr une recension du livre de Vanessa Nurock,Sommes-nous naturellement moraux? (Paris, P.U.F., 2011). Le caractère exceptionnellement sévère des critiques me conduit à réagir, non pas pour défendre le livre de Vanessa Nurock: il se défend lui-même, quiconque prend encore la peine de lire les livres et ne se contente pas des recensions, se rendra compte qu'un bon nombre des reproches de Florian Cova ne sont pas vraiment justifiés, mais pour tenter d'expliciter un malentendu profond, qui divise les philosophes français inscrits dans le mouvement de la philosophie analytique (un paysage qui devient complexe, nous traiterons sans doute de ce point dans un prochain billet), au sujet du concept de "naturalisation".
Nous partirons cependant d'un des reproches adressés au livre de Vanessa Nurock par Florian Cova, afin de mieux exposer ce point. Florian Cova reproche à Vanessa Nurock de confondre, à partir du chapitre 3, et en particulier des considérations sur la "la loi de Hume" (loi d'après laquelle, selon la vulgate humienne que V. Nurock s'ingénie à corriger justement, en revenant au texte de Hume, on ne peut pas pas dériver une norme d'un fait), la morale et la moralité.
Premièrement, je ne trouve pas que Vanessa Nurock fasse cette confusion, même si il est vrai que, dans le livre, on peut parfois passer de l'un à l'autre registre (le problème de l'origine de la morale, d'une part, et celui de la nature de notre moralité) quelque peu rapidement.
Deuxièmement, il me semble que la question de la distinction conceptuelle entre morale et moralité mérite d'être abordée pour elle-même, et ce en se demandant ce qui distingue la naturalisation de la moralité et la naturalisation de la morale.
Lors de discussions avec des collègues sociologues ou sociolinguistes, j'ai pu constater que nous ne comprenions pas la notion de "naturalisation" de la même manière. Si, à mes yeux, naturaliser un concept, cela voulait dire tenter soit de le ramener à une espèce naturelle, soit tenter de montrer que la classe des objets qu'il permet de rassembler in fine est une classe d'objets physiques, ces collègues ne l'entendaient pas du tout de cette oreille. Naturaliser, par exemple, naturaliser les lois du marché, c'est les exclure de la critique, en postulant qu'ils font partie de fonctionnements inévitables et nécessaires.
De prime abord, il semble simplement qu'un même terme est employé selon deux appréciations morales différentes: une appréciation neutre (la naturalisation est une méthode en épistémologie, elle peut être critiquée méthodologiquement, mais, au départ, dire que S a naturalisé un concept, ce n'est pas porter un jugement moral sur S), et une appréciation négative (les néo-libéraux naturalisent les lois du marché pour mieux étouffer toute impulsion révolutionnaire).
De ce point de vue, une expression comme "naturalisation de la morale" peut être comprise selon deux perspectives bien différentes.
1-A°) La naturalisation de la morale est une attitude qui consiste à préserver les règles de vie propres à un groupe en disant qu'elles caractérisent un fonds stable et pérenne, que l'on appelle la morale.
1-B°) Naturaliser la morale, c'est montrer que les concepts moraux sont ramenables à des espèces naturelles , ou bien que les objets rassemblés dans les classes "chapeautées" par les concepts moraux, font partie du monde physique. (Cependant, une autre stratégie de naturalisation de la morale peut consister à montrer que les concepts moraux ne sont définis que par rapport à l'ensemble des jugements dans lesquels ils interviennent [c'est l'assomption contextuelle], et que ces jugements sont expressifs, et expriment des réactions "naturelles": cette stratégie est la stratégie émotiviste ou non-cognitiviste, on parlera de l'autre stratégie comme d'une stratégie objectiviste)
Maintenant, si l'on parle de "naturalisation de la moralité", les choses sont un peu différentes. En effet, la moralité est un ensemble de propriétés individuelles, ou personnelles. Alors que la morale désigne l'ensemble des principes moraux (ce qu'il est bien de faire, en gros), de manière "externe", pour ainsi dire, la moralité qualifie, du point de vue de la morale, la valeur d'une personne, d'un caractère, d'une action, etc. La distinction n'est pas si tranchée que Florian Cova veut bien le croire. En gros, alors que le terme de "morale" est de la même catégorie que "orthographe" ou "grammaire", le terme de "moralité" est de la même catégorie que "correction syntaxique" ou "grammaticalité". Je ne suis ici qu'en train d'essayer de comprendre les termes selon leur catégorie (pour éviter les erreurs de catégorie, dans lesquelles le philosophe Gilbert Ryle voit l'origine de la plupart de nos problèmes philosophiques), je ne suis pas en train de parler du problème de savoir si la morale est une grammaire, j'aurais pu choisir d'autres exemples que "grammaire" ou "orthographe".
Cova considère que la moralité est un ensemble de capacités. Le problème est que les débats dont se réclament aussi bien Florian Cova que Vanessa Nurock sont menées dans la langue anglaise (UK/ USA), et que cela ne contribue pas à clarifier ces questions terminologiques.
Si nous considérons l'expression de "naturalisation de la moralité", et que nous essayons de la comprendre selon la dualité sémantique évoquée ci-dessus, qu'est-ce que cela donne?
2-A°) La naturalisation de la moralité est une attitude qui consiste à isoler un certain nombre de jugements de valeur, et à les faire passer pour des jugements de faits. Par exemple, quand le prêtre dit de l'une des ses ouailles que c'est une bonne âme, on va considérer qu'il exprime un fait, et non une appréciation subjective.
2-B°) La naturalisation de la moralité consiste à expliquer (en construisant des modèles prédictifs) les jugements de valeurs portés par des sujets en fonction des capacités naturelles de ces sujets.
Bien entendu, l'un des problèmes est que nos paraphrases contiennent des occurrences de "naturel" et que nous ne savons toujours pas ce que veut dire "naturel". Ce sera sans doute l'objet d'un autre billet.
Ce que met en évidence cette double paraphrase, c'est l'exigence d'une justification, celle du projet de naturalisation, que ce soit de la morale ou de la moralité. Le problème est bien qu'il y a un soupçon, à savoir que naturaliser la morale au sens 1-B, c'est, en fait, la naturaliser au sens 1-A, et que, naturaliser la moralité au sens 2-B, c'est la naturaliser au sens 2-A. C'est à peu près le genre d'objection que fait McKinnon à la psychologie évolutionniste.
Or, si c'est le cas, et si le naturaliste en morale ne peut pas se défendre correctement contre cette (double) objection, alors on peut dire que c'est la validité scientifique de son projet même qui est grevée, à moins que l'hypothèse du naturaliste soit: c'est ma morale qui est la bonne, et je vais le montrer... en naturalisant la moralité! Autrement dit, le projet naturaliste se fonde alors sur une morale naturalisée, au sens 1-A pour se permettre de naturaliser la moralité, au sens 2-B. En clair, c'est parce qu'il ne remet pas en cause qu'il y a bien une morale, celle à laquelle nous avons accès, que le naturaliste peut se permettre d'enquêter sur les capacités naturelles à l'origine, par exemple, de nos jugements moraux, les jugements qui nous permettent de déterminer la moralité d'une personne, d'un caractère, d'un comportement, d'une action, et, pourquoi pas, d'une émotion?
L'hypothèse selon laquelle tout programme de naturalisation de la moralité (au sens 2-B) se fonde sur une naturalisation de la morale (au sens 1-A) est crédible.
Pour au moins deux raisons. Tout d'abord, la psychologie morale, qu'elle soit évolutionniste ou cognitive, s'appuie pour une bonne part sur l'établissement d'un certain nombre d'universaux (par exemple, la différence entre ce qui est de l'ordre de la convention et ce qui est de l'ordre de la loi morale) pour développer ses modèles. L'idée qu'il y a une morale univoque est consistante avec l'idée qu'il y a des universaux qui constituent un noyau moral. Il y a donc un sens à chercher à déterminer la compétence morale (ce que Cova appelle la moralité), de même que c'est la détermination d'universaux dans toutes les langues qui étaye le programme de la grammaire universelle ou générative.
Par ailleurs, il n'est pas certain que les naturalistes soient gênés par l'idée qu'il naturalisent la morale au sens 1-A. Après tout, ils pourraient très bien dire que c'est le succès du programme de naturalisation de la moralité qui permettra de prouver que cette naturalisation de la morale n'est pas un geste idéologique mais tout simplement une hypothèse, voire une heuristique.
A leurs adversaires qui leur objecteraient que les universaux qu'ils croient déceler ne sont que des projections de leurs propres conceptions morales, les naturalistes pourraient, après tout, rétorquer que ce n'est pas tant sur ces hypothèses-là qu'ils attendent d'être jugés (après tout, toutes les hypothèses, en tant qu'hypothèses, se valent), mais bien sur la valeur prédictive des modèles qu'ils mettent en place dans leur travail de naturalisation de la morale.
Je pense que c'est ainsi que les philosophes qui s'appuient pour l'essentiel sur la psychologie morale justifieraient le fait qu'ils s'intéressent avant tout à la moralité et moins à la morale, ou alors envisagée commecognition morale. Reste que cette réponse ne tient pas s'il est montré qu'il faut avoir répondu à la question de la possibilité de naturaliser la morale pour que le programme de naturalisation de la moralité soit de nature à apaiser les anxiétés typiques de la philosophie morale traditionnelle. Et il me semble bien que c'est le cas...
Friday, May 23, 2014
Wednesday, April 9, 2014
3 Little Known Tips To purchasing Fitness gear
Did you know that buying fitness gear for your home Is not really that hard?
It is true that the world of fitness gear can seem like a maze at times and that there are literally 100s of different types of fitness gear pieces that might work well for your home agreement. However, with a little guidance, the process really isn’t that hard and you will be amazed at the bargains that you can find if you just dig a little deeper than the average consumer is usually prepared to. Let’s take a look at some tips to help you out in your quest for new fitness equipment.
1. Look at used gear. This is where some good deals can be found. Fitness gear can obtain a weird status in a person’s home. They might have been really excited to buy it initially and dreams of a fit body and monthly gym savings might have filled their head. However, after 3 months, the equipment often sits vacant in that person’s home. Used gear can be a really good deal due to the fact that it’s often times almost as good as new but now it’s for sale. To you. For cheap. Check out newspapers, Ebay, and other places; compare prices and get a deal.
2. Consider commercial fitness gear. Often times, you can buy the same equipment that your local gym has. Imagine, you can have that same (gasp!) Stairmaster that has dogged you for years at the local Ballys, right in your basement. This might be appealing to some who have the capital to invest in a large piece of gear. If you no longer have to pay a $50 monthly fee to go to a gym every month, this might be a really smart investment. Look into commercial equipment, you might be pleasantly surprised.
3. The first two points are almost worthless without considering the financing of your new fitness gear. When looking to finance your new set of fitness gear there are tons of important factors to keep in mind. You really don’t want to be paying too much for gear that might be found at a cheaper price (after everything is considered) elsewhere.
It is true that the world of fitness gear can seem like a maze at times and that there are literally 100s of different types of fitness gear pieces that might work well for your home agreement. However, with a little guidance, the process really isn’t that hard and you will be amazed at the bargains that you can find if you just dig a little deeper than the average consumer is usually prepared to. Let’s take a look at some tips to help you out in your quest for new fitness equipment.
1. Look at used gear. This is where some good deals can be found. Fitness gear can obtain a weird status in a person’s home. They might have been really excited to buy it initially and dreams of a fit body and monthly gym savings might have filled their head. However, after 3 months, the equipment often sits vacant in that person’s home. Used gear can be a really good deal due to the fact that it’s often times almost as good as new but now it’s for sale. To you. For cheap. Check out newspapers, Ebay, and other places; compare prices and get a deal.
2. Consider commercial fitness gear. Often times, you can buy the same equipment that your local gym has. Imagine, you can have that same (gasp!) Stairmaster that has dogged you for years at the local Ballys, right in your basement. This might be appealing to some who have the capital to invest in a large piece of gear. If you no longer have to pay a $50 monthly fee to go to a gym every month, this might be a really smart investment. Look into commercial equipment, you might be pleasantly surprised.
3. The first two points are almost worthless without considering the financing of your new fitness gear. When looking to finance your new set of fitness gear there are tons of important factors to keep in mind. You really don’t want to be paying too much for gear that might be found at a cheaper price (after everything is considered) elsewhere.
Tuesday, April 8, 2014
3 Healthy Benefits Of White Tea
It is not just chefs but also medical examination researchers who are praising the benefits of white tea for your wellness. In fact there are many different kinds of benefit of white tea that an individual can have and we will look at some people. But 1st we will provide you with a brief explanation as to what white tea is. It is made from the young tea leaves that will be picked before the buds have fully opened on the plant. The name comes from the silver fuzz which still covers the buds and this in turn then turns the tea white as it dries. There are many different varieties of white tea available and this all depends on the amount of leaves to buds that are used in each mixture. The White Peony for example has one bud for every 2 leaves in its mixture whilst Silver Needles (the crème de la crème) is made entirely from the down buds and these are normally picked within a 2 day period during early Spring.
So we have now looked at what White Tea is we will now go on to the different benefits a person can gain from using this particular product.
1. Anti-Viral and Anti-Bacterial Effects
Analyses carried out at Pace University have indicated that White Tea extract may have prophylactic applications which can help to retard the growth of bacteria which can cause Staphylococcus infections, Steptococcus infections, Pneumonia and Dental Caries. It was also found that White Tea is more effective than Green Tea at inactivating bacterial viruses as well as having an anti-viral effect on human pathogenic viruses.
2. Anti-Fungal Effect
There have been studies carried out which indicate that this has an anti-fungal effect on Penicillium Chrysogenum and Saccharomyces Cerervisiae. It was found that in the presence of White Tea extract these were totally inactivated.
3. Skin Cancer and Cell Damage Protection
Scientists have now found that the White Tea extract can protect against the Langerhans cell obliteration. It was found that not only the extract protected skin after exposure to sunlight but also a person's immune system was restored also. They also found that the DNA damage which occurs to cells after exposure to sunlight was limited. It is believed that the anti-oxidant properties in the White Tea extract are the reason for it being so effective. It is also suggested that the extract may provide a person with anti-aging benefits.
So as you can see from above there are many reasons as to what the benefit of white tea can have for a person in order to help them live a much healthier and happier life.
1. Anti-Viral and Anti-Bacterial Effects
Analyses carried out at Pace University have indicated that White Tea extract may have prophylactic applications which can help to retard the growth of bacteria which can cause Staphylococcus infections, Steptococcus infections, Pneumonia and Dental Caries. It was also found that White Tea is more effective than Green Tea at inactivating bacterial viruses as well as having an anti-viral effect on human pathogenic viruses.
2. Anti-Fungal Effect
There have been studies carried out which indicate that this has an anti-fungal effect on Penicillium Chrysogenum and Saccharomyces Cerervisiae. It was found that in the presence of White Tea extract these were totally inactivated.
3. Skin Cancer and Cell Damage Protection
Scientists have now found that the White Tea extract can protect against the Langerhans cell obliteration. It was found that not only the extract protected skin after exposure to sunlight but also a person's immune system was restored also. They also found that the DNA damage which occurs to cells after exposure to sunlight was limited. It is believed that the anti-oxidant properties in the White Tea extract are the reason for it being so effective. It is also suggested that the extract may provide a person with anti-aging benefits.
So as you can see from above there are many reasons as to what the benefit of white tea can have for a person in order to help them live a much healthier and happier life.
Monday, April 7, 2014
living on a Healthy Life
In the fast paced world that we live in it can be easy to carelessness our health and wellness. We’re so busy racing through our day to day lives – family, friends, work, social engagements – that we don’t take the time to look after ourselves. It’s really no wonder that so many of us are tired and run down. What are some simple things that we can do to improve our quality of life?
Drink Drink Drink… You’ve heard it a million times and you’ll probably hear it a million more – drink a lot of water! Think approximately it: The human body is 72% water. A 5% drop in fluids creates a 25-30% loss in energy. A 15% drop in fluids causes death! At this point in time 66% of us aren’t drinking enough water, so over half the population isn’t running on all six cylinders to begin with – before things like bad air, bad food and stress take their toll. It’s not really a difficult thing to remedy. Just drink one glass of water every half hour or so – or 10-12 glasses of water per day – and you’ll notice a huge jump in your energy levels.
Living Food – Loving Life! A little known fact is that heating food above 116°F destroys much of the nutrient content. Considering that we already aren’t consuming enough vegetables, that’s a fairly substantial problem. Nutritionists recommend five serves of fresh vegetables per day. How many of us are actually taking that advice? A great way to get the foods found in fresh veggies without spending all day at stove or consuming raw celery sticks is to juice your vegetables. Make sure that you own a good juicer (some drinkers expose vegetables to heat created by friction during juicing, which breaks down important enzymes), grab some fresh veggies and drink your way to good health. It takes a fraction of the time (there’s no cooking involved, for one thing) and it’s convenient. You can take your juice to work and even give some to the littlies for school lunches! Wheatgrass in particular is an excellent source of nutrition. It’s high in chlorophyll (sometimes described as ‘plant blood’ because it closely resembles human red blood cell molecules) and has over 100 elements that the body needs. Fresh grains are another excellent source for vitamins and minerals.
Energy In – Energy Out Exercise is another dirty word for most of us. The thing is, exercise doesn’t have to be horribly time consuming or mind-numbingly boring. There are plenty of options. Years ago gyms usually offered weight rooms, aerobics classes and maybe a tydro-circuit. Now you can add water aerobics, yoga, pilates, dance-ercise, step classes and a whole range of new workout options. If you don’t really have the time or money for the gym, or prefer to spend your mornings/nights at home, then try an exercise bike or walker.
I’d be lost without my exercise bike – I set it up in front of the television and peddle away merrily during my favourite shows. If, like me, you suffer from illness or injury or your level of fitness is quite low, you might like to consider some invaluable advice that I got from my doctor: Once you’re physically unfit, and particularly if you’re also unwell, it can be a mammoth battle to just do the most minimal amount of exercise in a day. The danger is that inactivity leads to further loss of energy, which becomes a self-perpetuating cycle until you can barely get off the couch. An excellent method to get back into a physical routine is to begin slowly.
Ridiculously slowly, it may seem. For the first couple of weeks, walk/ride for 5 minutes per day – exactly 5 minutes, no more, even if you think you could continue. When the 2 weeks are up, increase to 7 minutes, then 10 minutes, 12 minutes… continue to gradually increase your activity until you’re at a level that you’re comfortable with. It may sound a little silly, but it works. In effect, you trick your body into producing more energy. You’re building your exercise time up so slowly that your body doesn’t really realise what’s happening. Follow this method and, before you know it, you’ll be comfortably exercising within your limits day-after-day. And then, folks, that’s the basics. If you can rearrange your life a little to allow for better eating habits and a little exercise, and if you remember to just drink a glass of water every half hour or so, you’ll be well on the way to living a healthy life. On a final note, don’t forget to take some quiet time for yourself.
Meditating is an fantabulous way to minimize tension. You do not have to sit around for hrs, just give yourself five minutes of quiet time every day – even in the shower, if that’s the only place where you can get time out – and have a little catch up with yourself. And, last but by no means least, laugh! In fact, laugh like a loon – the louder the better! You’ll be amazed at how much such a simple thing can lift your spirits!
Drink Drink Drink… You’ve heard it a million times and you’ll probably hear it a million more – drink a lot of water! Think approximately it: The human body is 72% water. A 5% drop in fluids creates a 25-30% loss in energy. A 15% drop in fluids causes death! At this point in time 66% of us aren’t drinking enough water, so over half the population isn’t running on all six cylinders to begin with – before things like bad air, bad food and stress take their toll. It’s not really a difficult thing to remedy. Just drink one glass of water every half hour or so – or 10-12 glasses of water per day – and you’ll notice a huge jump in your energy levels.
Living Food – Loving Life! A little known fact is that heating food above 116°F destroys much of the nutrient content. Considering that we already aren’t consuming enough vegetables, that’s a fairly substantial problem. Nutritionists recommend five serves of fresh vegetables per day. How many of us are actually taking that advice? A great way to get the foods found in fresh veggies without spending all day at stove or consuming raw celery sticks is to juice your vegetables. Make sure that you own a good juicer (some drinkers expose vegetables to heat created by friction during juicing, which breaks down important enzymes), grab some fresh veggies and drink your way to good health. It takes a fraction of the time (there’s no cooking involved, for one thing) and it’s convenient. You can take your juice to work and even give some to the littlies for school lunches! Wheatgrass in particular is an excellent source of nutrition. It’s high in chlorophyll (sometimes described as ‘plant blood’ because it closely resembles human red blood cell molecules) and has over 100 elements that the body needs. Fresh grains are another excellent source for vitamins and minerals.
Energy In – Energy Out Exercise is another dirty word for most of us. The thing is, exercise doesn’t have to be horribly time consuming or mind-numbingly boring. There are plenty of options. Years ago gyms usually offered weight rooms, aerobics classes and maybe a tydro-circuit. Now you can add water aerobics, yoga, pilates, dance-ercise, step classes and a whole range of new workout options. If you don’t really have the time or money for the gym, or prefer to spend your mornings/nights at home, then try an exercise bike or walker.
I’d be lost without my exercise bike – I set it up in front of the television and peddle away merrily during my favourite shows. If, like me, you suffer from illness or injury or your level of fitness is quite low, you might like to consider some invaluable advice that I got from my doctor: Once you’re physically unfit, and particularly if you’re also unwell, it can be a mammoth battle to just do the most minimal amount of exercise in a day. The danger is that inactivity leads to further loss of energy, which becomes a self-perpetuating cycle until you can barely get off the couch. An excellent method to get back into a physical routine is to begin slowly.
Ridiculously slowly, it may seem. For the first couple of weeks, walk/ride for 5 minutes per day – exactly 5 minutes, no more, even if you think you could continue. When the 2 weeks are up, increase to 7 minutes, then 10 minutes, 12 minutes… continue to gradually increase your activity until you’re at a level that you’re comfortable with. It may sound a little silly, but it works. In effect, you trick your body into producing more energy. You’re building your exercise time up so slowly that your body doesn’t really realise what’s happening. Follow this method and, before you know it, you’ll be comfortably exercising within your limits day-after-day. And then, folks, that’s the basics. If you can rearrange your life a little to allow for better eating habits and a little exercise, and if you remember to just drink a glass of water every half hour or so, you’ll be well on the way to living a healthy life. On a final note, don’t forget to take some quiet time for yourself.
Meditating is an fantabulous way to minimize tension. You do not have to sit around for hrs, just give yourself five minutes of quiet time every day – even in the shower, if that’s the only place where you can get time out – and have a little catch up with yourself. And, last but by no means least, laugh! In fact, laugh like a loon – the louder the better! You’ll be amazed at how much such a simple thing can lift your spirits!
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